Direct answer
Machinery and automation concepts cover how a line's performance is specified (cycle time, throughput, line integration), how it is controlled (PLC, HMI, machine vision, digital twin, predictive maintenance), how material moves (collaborative robots, AGV and AMR fleets) and how the equipment must be built and documented (CE marking, IP rating, hygienic design, process flow diagram, prototype and pilot line).
Engineering & Custom Machinery
Custom Machinery
Also called: bespoke machinery · custom-engineered equipment
Custom machinery refers to production equipment designed and built to satisfy a buyer's specific process, product or facility requirements rather than a generic market offering.
Custom machinery projects typically begin with a feasibility or concept study, proceed through basic and detailed engineering, and conclude with fabrication, assembly and acceptance testing. The scope may range from a single custom station to an entire production line.
Understanding what makes machinery custom helps buyers scope requirements accurately and avoid mismatched expectations between specification and delivered equipment.
Scope range
Custom scope can range from a modified standard machine to a fully bespoke process line.
Documentation
Custom projects typically generate general arrangement drawings, P&IDs and control philosophy documents specific to the installation.
Not the same as special purpose machine
Custom machinery is a broader category; an SPM is one common form of custom-engineered equipment focused on a single process step.
A packaging line operator orders custom machinery to accommodate an irregularly shaped container not supported by standard equipment.
Does custom machinery cost more than standard equipment?
It commonly does, reflecting engineering, tooling and testing effort, though lifecycle fit-for-purpose can offset the premium.
Who typically initiates a custom machinery project?
The buyer's engineering or operations team, often supported by a feasibility study before requesting quotations.
RelatedSpecial Purpose Machine (SPM)Basic Engineering DesignDetailed EngineeringRequest for Quotation (RFQ)
Engineering & Custom Machinery
Cycle Time
Cycle time is the elapsed time required for a machine or process step to complete one full repeatable operation, from the start of one unit to the start of the next.
Cycle time is a core parameter in machine specifications because it directly determines achievable throughput for a given process. It is typically measured under defined conditions (product type, format, operator involvement) and validated during factory or site acceptance testing.
Cycle time claims in supplier proposals should be tied to explicit test conditions, since real production cycle time is often affected by changeovers, jams and minor stoppages not present in demonstration conditions.
Relation to throughput
Throughput is approximately the inverse of cycle time multiplied by line availability.
Measurement basis
Acceptance tests typically specify the product, format and run duration used to measure cycle time.
Not the same as throughput
Cycle time is the duration of one cycle; throughput is the resulting output rate over a period, accounting for availability.
The specification required a cycle time of 3 seconds per unit, verified over a continuous one-hour test run during the factory acceptance test.
Is cycle time the same for every product variant?
Not necessarily; changeovers between formats can add time beyond the nominal per-unit cycle time.
How is cycle time verified?
Typically by timed test runs during FAT and SAT under agreed product and speed conditions.
RelatedThroughputFactory Acceptance Test (FAT)Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE)Machine Capability Study
Engineering & Custom Machinery
Throughput
Also called: production rate · output rate
Throughput is the actual quantity of product a machine, line or facility produces over a defined period, expressed as units, mass or volume per unit time.
Throughput reflects nominal machine speed reduced by availability losses such as changeovers, minor stoppages, maintenance and quality rejects. Specifications commonly distinguish nameplate or design throughput from expected operating throughput under real production conditions.
Comparing design throughput to realistically achievable throughput helps buyers avoid capacity shortfalls when sizing equipment against demand forecasts.
Design vs. actual
Actual sustained throughput is commonly lower than design or nameplate figures due to availability and quality losses.
Units
Throughput is expressed in units appropriate to the product, such as units per hour, tonnes per day or litres per shift.
Not the same as cycle time
Throughput is the output rate over time; cycle time is the duration of a single production cycle.
A line rated at 6,000 units per hour design throughput typically achieves lower sustained output once changeovers and stoppages are accounted for.
Should contracts specify design or sustained throughput?
Buyers commonly specify sustained throughput under defined operating conditions to avoid disputes over nameplate figures.
How does OEE relate to throughput?
Overall Equipment Effectiveness quantifies the gap between theoretical maximum throughput and actual output.
RelatedCycle TimeOverall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE)Machine Capability StudyProduction Line
Engineering & Custom Machinery
Process Flow Diagram (PFD)
Also called: PFD
Process Flow Diagram (PFD) is a schematic representation of the major process steps, equipment items and material flows in a production system, without piping or instrumentation detail.
A PFD is typically produced early in basic engineering to establish the overall process logic, mass and energy balances, and equipment list before detailed piping and instrumentation diagrams are developed. It serves as a common reference between process engineers, equipment suppliers and the buyer's operations team.
A clear PFD lets buyers validate that the proposed process sequence matches their intended product and capacity before detailed engineering commitments are made.
Level of detail
PFDs typically show major unit operations and flow direction rather than individual valves or instruments.
Sequence
PFDs usually precede piping and instrumentation diagrams (P&IDs) in the engineering sequence.
Not the same as P&ID
A PFD shows overall process logic and major streams; a P&ID adds piping, instrumentation and control detail for construction.
The PFD for a dairy processing line shows the sequence from raw milk reception through pasteurisation to packaging.
Who prepares a PFD?
Typically a process or systems engineer, often the equipment supplier or an independent engineering consultant during basic design.
Is a PFD contractual?
It is commonly referenced in the technical specification and contract as the agreed process basis.
RelatedBasic Engineering DesignGeneral Arrangement Drawing (GA Drawing)Technical Specification
Engineering & Custom Machinery
Prototype and Pilot Line
Also called: pilot line · prototype line
Prototype and pilot line refers to a reduced-scale or pre-production version of a manufacturing process used to validate design, process parameters and product quality before committing to full-scale investment.
Pilot lines typically run at lower throughput than the intended production line but replicate key process steps closely enough to generate representative product and process data. Results inform final equipment sizing, process parameters and risk mitigation before full capital expenditure is approved.
Running a pilot line reduces the risk of scaling errors and unforeseen process issues that would be far more costly to discover on a full production line.
Typical use
Pilot lines are commonly used for new product introductions or novel processes with limited prior production data.
Scale factor
Pilot line throughput is commonly a small fraction of intended full-scale production capacity.
Not the same as prototype machine
A prototype machine validates a single equipment design; a pilot line validates an integrated sequence of process steps at reduced scale.
A pilot line trial confirmed acceptable product quality at target line speed before the full-scale production line was ordered.
Is a pilot line always kept after full-scale investment?
Practice varies; some pilot lines are decommissioned, others are retained for R&D or small-batch production.
Who typically funds a pilot line?
The buyer commonly funds pilot trials as part of a feasibility study, sometimes with supplier co-investment.
RelatedFeasibility StudyMachine Capability StudyCommissioning
Engineering & Custom Machinery
CE Marking
Also called: CE mark
CE marking is a manufacturer's declaration, indicated by a specific symbol, that a machine placed on the European Economic Area market complies with applicable EU health, safety and environmental directives.
For machinery, CE marking is typically supported by a technical file, a declaration of conformity, and conformity assessment against the Machinery Directive along with any other applicable directives such as those covering electromagnetic compatibility or pressure equipment. It applies regardless of where the machine is manufactured.
Buyers importing or operating machinery in the EEA need CE-marked equipment with supporting documentation to meet legal placing-on-market and workplace safety obligations.
Scope
CE marking is required for most machinery placed on the EEA market, subject to specific directive scope and exclusions.
Documentation
A technical file and EU declaration of conformity are typically required to support the CE mark.
Not the same as Machinery Directive
CE marking is the visible declaration of compliance; the Machinery Directive is the underlying legal instrument setting the requirements.
A custom packaging machine imported into the EU required CE marking and a declaration of conformity before it could be legally installed.
Does CE marking apply outside the EU?
CE marking is an EEA requirement, though some non-EU markets reference similar conformity frameworks.
Who is responsible for CE marking?
The manufacturer or its authorised representative placing the machine on the EEA market is typically responsible.
RelatedMachinery DirectiveFunctional SafetyTechnical Specification
Engineering & Custom Machinery
Ingress Protection Rating (IP Rating)
Also called: IP rating · IP code
Ingress Protection Rating (IP rating) is a two-digit code defined by IEC 60529 indicating the degree of protection an enclosure provides against solid objects and liquid ingress.
The first digit denotes protection against solids such as dust, and the second against liquids such as water jets or immersion. Selecting the correct IP rating for a given environment, such as a washdown food processing area, is a common part of equipment specification.
Specifying an inadequate IP rating for the operating environment is a frequent cause of premature electrical failure and unplanned downtime.
Common food-grade rating
IP69 or IP69K, indicating resistance to high-pressure, high-temperature washdown, is commonly specified for hygienic processing areas.
General industrial rating
IP54 or IP65 is commonly specified for general dust and splash protection in dry manufacturing environments.
Control panels on a washdown-rated meat processing line were specified to IP69K to withstand daily high-pressure cleaning.
Does a higher IP number always mean better protection?
Generally yes for each digit's category, but the two digits address different hazards and must both be assessed for the application.
Is IP rating the same as NEMA rating?
No, NEMA ratings are a separate North American classification system that overlaps with but does not map one-to-one onto IP ratings.
Engineering & Custom Machinery
Hygienic Design
Also called: sanitary design
Hygienic design refers to equipment design principles that minimise microbial and contamination risk by eliminating crevices, ensuring drainability and using cleanable materials and surface finishes.
Common principles include sloped surfaces to prevent liquid pooling, accessible surfaces for cleaning and inspection, use of food-grade materials such as certain stainless steel grades, and avoidance of dead legs in piping. Organisations such as EHEDG publish guidelines commonly referenced in equipment specifications.
Poor hygienic design increases contamination risk, cleaning time and regulatory exposure in food, beverage and pharmaceutical processing.
Reference guidelines
EHEDG guidelines are commonly referenced for hygienic equipment design in food and beverage processing.
Material choice
Stainless steel grades such as 304 or 316 are commonly specified for product-contact surfaces.
Not the same as IP rating
IP rating addresses ingress protection of enclosures; hygienic design addresses cleanability and contamination risk of the whole machine, including surfaces and geometry.
A hygienic design review of a filling machine identified a dead leg in the piping that could trap product residue between cleaning cycles.
Is hygienic design only relevant to food processing?
It is most prominent in food, beverage and pharmaceutical sectors but applies wherever contamination control is critical.
Does hygienic design increase equipment cost?
It commonly does, reflecting material grades and design complexity, though it can reduce cleaning downtime and rejection rates.
RelatedIngress Protection Rating (IP Rating)Cold ChainTechnical Specification
Automation & Production Systems
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
Also called: PLC
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is an industrial digital computer designed to execute control logic reliably in real time for machinery and process automation in harsh factory environments.
PLCs read inputs from sensors and switches, execute a control programme, and drive outputs such as motors, valves and actuators. They are typically programmed in standardised languages such as ladder logic or structured text under IEC 61131-3 and are valued for ruggedness and deterministic timing.
The PLC is the core decision-making device on most automated machines, so its programming, documentation and spare-parts availability affect long-term maintainability.
Standard languages
IEC 61131-3 defines standard PLC programming languages including ladder diagram and structured text.
Longevity
PLC hardware in industrial service commonly remains in operation for a decade or more before replacement.
Not the same as industrial PC
A PLC is a ruggedised, deterministic controller for real-time machine logic; an industrial PC typically runs general-purpose operating systems for higher-level tasks such as visualisation or data processing.
The bottling machine's PLC coordinated conveyor speed, filling valves and reject mechanisms based on sensor feedback along the line.
Is a PLC the same as a safety controller?
Not necessarily; standard PLCs handle general logic, while safety-rated PLCs or dedicated safety controllers are used for safety functions.
Can PLC programs be transferred between brands?
Generally not directly; program logic often needs re-engineering when changing PLC platforms, though IEC 61131-3 languages improve portability of concepts.
RelatedSupervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)Human-Machine Interface (HMI)Industrial AutomationFunctional Safety
Automation & Production Systems
Human-Machine Interface (HMI)
Also called: HMI
Human-Machine Interface (HMI) is the operator-facing display and control panel that allows personnel to monitor status, adjust parameters and respond to alarms on a machine or process.
HMIs range from simple text displays with buttons to touchscreen panels showing graphical process visualisation. They typically communicate with a PLC or controller to display live values and send operator commands, and are a key element of machine usability and operator training.
A well-designed HMI reduces operator error and training time, while a poorly designed one can obscure important alarms or slow fault diagnosis.
Common form factor
Touchscreen panel HMIs are commonly used on modern machines, ranging from small handheld units to large panel displays.
Alarm management
Structured alarm prioritisation on the HMI is commonly recommended to prevent operator alarm fatigue.
Not the same as SCADA
An HMI is typically local to one machine or cell; SCADA aggregates and supervises data across multiple machines or a wider site.
Operators used the line's HMI touchscreen to switch between product recipes and acknowledge alarms during a changeover.
Can one HMI control multiple machines?
Some HMIs are configured to interface with several connected machines, though dedicated per-machine HMIs remain common.
Is HMI design covered by standards?
Human factors and ergonomics guidance, along with general usability principles, are commonly applied though formal standards vary by industry.
RelatedProgrammable Logic Controller (PLC)Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA)Industrial Automation
Automation & Production Systems
Machine Vision
Also called: industrial vision system
Machine vision is the use of cameras and image-processing algorithms to automatically inspect, measure, guide or identify objects within an industrial process.
Common applications include dimensional inspection, surface defect detection, presence verification, code reading and providing positional feedback to guide robots. Systems range from simple sensor-based checks to complex algorithms including deep learning for defect classification.
Machine vision can perform inspection tasks at speeds and consistency levels beyond manual visual checking, but requires proper lighting, lens and algorithm selection to be reliable.
Common uses
Dimensional checking, defect detection, code reading and robot guidance are common machine vision applications.
Lighting dependency
Consistent, application-appropriate lighting is commonly cited as critical to reliable machine vision performance.
Not the same as simple photoelectric sensor
A photoelectric sensor typically detects presence or absence at a point; machine vision captures and analyses an image to extract shape, position or quality information.
A machine vision system inspected label placement on bottles and rejected units where the label was misaligned beyond tolerance.
Does machine vision require artificial intelligence?
Not necessarily; many applications use rule-based image processing, while more complex defect classification may use trained models.
Can machine vision guide robots in real time?
Yes, vision-guided robotics is a common application where the vision system provides positional data to the robot controller.
RelatedEnd-of-Arm Tooling (EOAT) / End EffectorIndustrial RobotOverall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE)
Automation & Production Systems
Collaborative Robot (Cobot)
Also called: cobot
Collaborative Robot (cobot) is a robot designed with features such as force limiting and speed monitoring that allow it to operate in shared workspace with human operators without full physical guarding.
Cobots typically rely on power and force limiting, safety-rated monitored stop, speed and separation monitoring, or hand-guiding as defined in ISO/TS 15066, which supplements the general robot safety standard ISO 10218. They are commonly used for lower-payload tasks such as machine tending, light assembly or inspection.
Cobots can reduce guarding footprint and enable flexible deployment near workers, but a risk assessment is still required to confirm the application suits collaborative operation.
Relevant standard
ISO/TS 15066 provides guidance specific to collaborative robot applications, supplementing ISO 10218.
Typical payload
Cobots commonly handle lower payloads than conventional industrial robots, though ranges vary by model.
Not the same as industrial robot
A cobot's safety features are intended for shared workspace with reduced guarding; a conventional industrial robot generally requires full guarding for its higher speed and payload.
A cobot was deployed to tend a CNC machine, working alongside an operator without a full safety fence, following a documented risk assessment.
Does 'cobot' guarantee no guarding is needed?
No; guarding requirements depend on a task-specific risk assessment, and some collaborative applications still require partial guarding.
Are cobots slower than industrial robots?
Cobots often operate at reduced speed near people, but many can run at higher speed when isolated from human presence, depending on configuration.
RelatedIndustrial RobotEnd-of-Arm Tooling (EOAT) / End EffectorFunctional Safety
Automation & Production Systems
Automated Guided Vehicle and Autonomous Mobile Robot (AGV / AMR)
Also called: AGV · AMR · automated guided vehicle · autonomous mobile robot
Automated Guided Vehicle and Autonomous Mobile Robot (AGV / AMR) are unmanned vehicles used to transport materials within a facility, differing in navigation method and route flexibility.
AGVs typically follow fixed paths defined by magnetic tape, wires or markers, while AMRs use onboard sensors and mapping software to navigate dynamically and reroute around obstacles. Both are used for tasks such as moving raw materials, work-in-progress or finished goods between stations and warehouses.
Choosing between AGV and AMR technology affects facility infrastructure requirements, flexibility to layout changes and capital cost.
Navigation basis
AGVs commonly rely on fixed guidance infrastructure; AMRs commonly use simultaneous localisation and mapping (SLAM) software.
Layout flexibility
AMRs are commonly favoured where facility layouts or routes change frequently, since rerouting requires no physical infrastructure change.
Not the same as AMR vs AGV
AGVs follow a fixed, pre-defined path requiring physical guidance markers; AMRs navigate dynamically using onboard mapping and can adapt routes without infrastructure changes.
A warehouse replaced its wire-guided AGVs with AMRs to allow flexible rerouting as storage racking layouts were reconfigured.
Are AMRs always more expensive than AGVs?
Not necessarily; while AMR unit cost can be higher, AGVs may require costly infrastructure installation that offsets the difference.
Can AGVs and AMRs operate in the same facility?
Yes, mixed fleets are used, though fleet management software must coordinate their differing navigation approaches.
RelatedWarehouse AutomationConveying SystemIndustrial Internet of Things (IIoT)
Automation & Production Systems
Digital Twin
Digital twin is a virtual model of a physical machine, line or facility that is kept synchronised with real operational data to support simulation, monitoring or predictive analysis.
Digital twins range in fidelity from simple data-linked 3D models to detailed physics-based simulations used to test control logic or predict maintenance needs before physical changes are made. Applications include virtual commissioning, where control software is validated against a simulated machine before connecting to real hardware.
Digital twins can reduce commissioning risk and downtime by allowing control logic and process changes to be tested virtually before deployment on physical equipment.
Virtual commissioning
Virtual commissioning against a digital twin is commonly used to validate PLC logic before connecting to physical hardware.
Fidelity range
Digital twin fidelity ranges from basic data visualisation models to detailed physics-based simulations.
Not the same as simulation model
A standalone simulation model is typically static and used once; a digital twin maintains ongoing data synchronisation with the physical asset.
A digital twin of a bottling line allowed engineers to test a new changeover sequence virtually before implementing it on the physical machine.
Does every automated line need a digital twin?
No, digital twins are typically justified for complex or high-value lines where simulation reduces significant commissioning or downtime risk.
How is a digital twin kept synchronised?
Through continuous data feeds from sensors and control systems, commonly via industrial IoT connectivity.
RelatedManufacturing Execution System (MES)Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT)Predictive MaintenanceCommissioning
Automation & Production Systems
Predictive Maintenance
Also called: PdM
Predictive maintenance is a maintenance strategy that uses condition data, such as vibration, temperature or current signatures, to estimate equipment health and schedule maintenance before failure occurs.
It typically relies on sensors and analytics to detect early degradation patterns, allowing maintenance to be scheduled based on actual condition rather than fixed time intervals. Predictive maintenance sits alongside preventive maintenance (time-based) and reactive maintenance (after failure) as one of the main maintenance strategies.
Shifting from time-based to condition-based maintenance can reduce unplanned downtime and unnecessary servicing, but requires investment in sensors, data infrastructure and analysis capability.
Common sensor types
Vibration, thermal imaging and motor current signature analysis are common data sources for predictive maintenance.
Data dependency
Reliable predictive maintenance commonly requires a period of baseline data collection before failure patterns can be identified with confidence.
Not the same as preventive maintenance
Preventive maintenance follows fixed time or usage intervals regardless of actual condition; predictive maintenance triggers action based on measured equipment condition.
Vibration monitoring on a critical gearbox flagged an early bearing wear pattern, allowing planned replacement before an unplanned failure.
Is predictive maintenance suitable for all equipment?
It is generally most cost-effective for critical or high-value assets where downtime cost justifies the sensor and analytics investment.
Does predictive maintenance eliminate unplanned downtime entirely?
No, it reduces but does not eliminate unplanned failures, since not all failure modes are detectable in advance.
RelatedIndustrial Internet of Things (IIoT)Digital TwinOverall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE)
Automation & Production Systems
Line Integration
Also called: system integration
Line integration is the engineering work of connecting individual machines, often from different suppliers, into a coordinated production line with unified controls, communication and material flow.
Integration typically involves mechanical interfacing of equipment, harmonising control architecture across a common network, synchronising line speed and coordinating safety systems. A single systems integrator or lead contractor is commonly appointed to manage interfaces and accountability across multiple equipment suppliers.
Poorly managed line integration is a common source of project delay and performance shortfall, since interface responsibility between suppliers can be unclear without a coordinating integrator.
Common risk area
Unclear interface responsibility between multiple equipment suppliers is commonly cited as a project risk in integration projects.
Common network approach
A common industrial network protocol is commonly selected to allow different suppliers' equipment to communicate on the same line.
Not the same as turnkey project
A turnkey project places overall delivery responsibility with a single contractor; line integration is the specific engineering task of connecting multiple machines, which may occur within or outside a turnkey structure.
A systems integrator was appointed to manage line integration across filling, labelling and palletizing equipment supplied by three different manufacturers.
Who typically performs line integration?
A dedicated systems integrator, the lead equipment supplier, or the buyer's own engineering team, depending on project structure.
Does line integration include software?
Yes, harmonising control software and communication protocols across machines is a core part of line integration.
RelatedProduction LineTurnkey ProjectCommissioningConveying System
Operations & Performance
Energy Intensity
Also called: specific energy consumption
Ratio of total energy consumed to a unit of output, such as kilowatt-hours per tonne produced, used to benchmark and track process energy efficiency.
Energy intensity normalises energy consumption for production volume, allowing comparison across periods, lines or facilities of different sizes. It is a common metric in cold chain, feed milling and food processing operations where refrigeration, drying or extrusion are major energy consumers.
Tracking energy intensity supports both operating cost control and disclosure requirements linked to sustainability reporting and decarbonisation targets.
Common unit
kWh per tonne of output, or kWh per cubic metre of stored product in cold storage.
Major driver
Refrigeration, thermal processing and compressed air are frequently the largest contributors in food and feed plants.
Not the same as Utility consumption
Utility consumption is an absolute total figure; energy intensity is normalised per unit of output, enabling fair comparison over time.
The energy audit reported energy intensity of 145 kWh per tonne, which the plant used as the baseline for a decarbonisation programme.
Does energy intensity account for production mix?
It should be adjusted or segmented by product type where mix varies significantly, since some products are inherently more energy-intensive.
Is lower energy intensity always achievable through automation?
Not always; process design, insulation and thermal recovery often contribute more than automation alone.
RelatedUtility ConsumptionDecarbonisation of ManufacturingIndustrial SustainabilityCold Storage Warehouse
Operations & Performance
Decarbonisation of Manufacturing
Also called: industrial decarbonisation
Set of measures taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from industrial production, including electrification, energy efficiency, renewable energy sourcing and process redesign.
Decarbonisation initiatives in manufacturing often target the highest-emission processes first, such as thermal treatment, refrigeration or combustion-based drying, before addressing lower-impact areas. Measures range from equipment-level efficiency upgrades to facility-level renewable energy procurement and, in some sectors, carbon capture.
Emissions performance increasingly affects export market access, buyer procurement criteria and eligibility for certain concessional or green financing instruments.
Common levers
Electrification of heat, renewable power procurement, waste heat recovery and refrigerant selection.
Sector relevance
Cold chain and thermal food processing are frequently prioritised due to high energy and refrigerant-related emissions.
Not the same as Energy intensity
Energy intensity measures consumption per unit of output; decarbonisation focuses specifically on reducing associated greenhouse gas emissions, which can involve switching energy source rather than reducing consumption.
The capex plan included a decarbonisation of manufacturing component replacing high-global-warming-potential refrigerants across the cold storage facility.
Does decarbonisation always require new equipment?
Not always; operational changes such as load scheduling and refrigerant management can achieve reductions without full equipment replacement.
Are decarbonisation targets standardised?
Targets vary by jurisdiction, sector and buyer requirement; no single universal standard applies across all industrial sectors.
RelatedIndustrial SustainabilityEnergy IntensityCold Storage WarehouseCapital Expenditure (CAPEX)
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